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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0.1em;">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff;font-size:175%;padding-top:0; display:block;margin-bottom:0.4em;"><a href="Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">Forensic science</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_biology" title="Forensic biology">Biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Bloodstain_pattern_analysis" title="Bloodstain pattern analysis">Bloodstain pattern analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_dentistry" title="Forensic dentistry">Dentistry</a></li>

<li><a href="DNA_phenotyping" title="DNA phenotyping">DNA phenotyping</a></li>

<li><a href="DNA_profiling" title="DNA profiling">DNA profiling</a>

<ul><li><a href="Investigative_genetic_genealogy" title="Investigative genetic genealogy">Forensic genealogy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_entomology" title="Forensic entomology">Entomology</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_epidemiology" title="Forensic epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_limnology" title="Forensic limnology">Limnology</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_jurisprudence" title="Medical jurisprudence">Medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_palynology" title="Forensic palynology">Palynology</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_pathology" title="Forensic pathology">Pathology</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_podiatry" title="Forensic podiatry">Podiatry</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Toxicology</a></li></ul>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Social_science" title="Social science">Social</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Forensic_psychiatry" title="Forensic psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_psychotherapy" title="Forensic psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_social_work" title="Forensic social work">Social work</a></li>

<li><a href="Verbal_autopsy" title="Verbal autopsy">Verbal autopsy</a></li></ul>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)">Criminalistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Forensic_accounting" title="Forensic accounting">Accounting</a></li>

<li><a href="Body_identification" title="Body identification">Body identification</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_chemistry" title="Forensic chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_colorimetry" title="Forensic colorimetry">Colorimetry</a></li>

<li><a href="Election_forensics" title="Election forensics">Election forensics</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_facial_reconstruction" title="Forensic facial reconstruction">Facial reconstruction</a></li>

<li><a href="Fingerprint" title="Fingerprint">Fingerprint analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_firearm_examination" title="Forensic firearm examination">Firearm examination</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_footwear_evidence" title="Forensic footwear evidence">Footwear evidence</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_arts" title="Forensic arts">Forensic arts</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_profiling" title="Forensic profiling">Profiling</a></li>

<li><a href="Glove_prints" title="Glove prints">Gloveprint analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Palm_print" title="Palm print">Palmprint analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Questioned_document_examination" title="Questioned document examination">Questioned document examination</a></li>

<li><a href="Vein_matching" title="Vein matching">Vein matching</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_geophysics" title="Forensic geophysics">Forensic geophysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_geology" title="Forensic geology">Forensic geology</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Social network analysis</a></li></ul>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Digital_forensics" title="Digital forensics">Digital forensics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Computer_forensics" title="Computer forensics">Computer exams</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_data_analysis" title="Forensic data analysis">Data analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Database_forensics" title="Database forensics">Database study</a></li>

<li><a href="GPS_tracking_unit" title="GPS tracking unit">Location analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Malware_analysis" title="Malware analysis">Malware analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Mobile_device_forensics" title="Mobile device forensics">Mobile devices</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_forensics" title="Network forensics">Network analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_photography" title="Forensic photography">Photography</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_video_analysis" title="Forensic video analysis">Video analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Audio_forensics" title="Audio forensics">Audio analysis</a></li></ul>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)">Related disciplines</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Forensic_electrical_engineering" title="Forensic electrical engineering">Electrical engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Fire_investigation" title="Fire investigation">Fire investigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Detection_of_fire_accelerants" title="Detection of fire accelerants">Fire accelerant detection</a></li>

<li><a href="Fractography" title="Fractography">Fractography</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_linguistics" title="Forensic linguistics">Linguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_materials_engineering" title="Forensic materials engineering">Materials engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_polymer_engineering" title="Forensic polymer engineering">Polymer engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_statistics" title="Forensic statistics">Statistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Traffic_collision_reconstruction" title="Traffic collision reconstruction">Traffic collision reconstruction</a></li></ul>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Crime_scene" title="Crime scene">Crime scene</a></li>

<li><a href="CSI_effect" title="CSI effect">CSI effect</a></li>

<li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="Use_of_DNA_in_forensic_entomology" title="Use of DNA in forensic entomology">DNA in forensic entomology</a></div></li>

<li><a href="Perry_Mason_syndrome" title="Perry Mason syndrome">Perry Mason syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Pollen_calendar" title="Pollen calendar">Pollen calendar</a></li>

<li><a href="Trace_evidence" title="Trace evidence">Trace evidence</a></li></ul>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="display:block;margin-top:0.7em; padding-top:0.15em;">

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_forensic_science" title="Outline of forensic science">Outline</a></li>

<li>Category</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="margin-top:0;padding-top:0.15em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

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<p><b>Forensic engineering</b> has been defined as "the investigation of failures—ranging from serviceability to catastrophic—which may lead to legal activity, including both civil and criminal".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The forensic engineering field is very broad in terms of the many disciplines that it covers, investigations that use forensic engineering are case of environmental damages to structures, system failures of machines, explosions, electrical, fire point of origin, vehicle failures and many more.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>It includes the investigation of <a href="Material_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Material science">materials</a>, <a href="Product_(business)" title="Product (business)">products</a>, <a href="Structure" title="Structure">structures</a> or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing <a href="Personal_injury" title="Personal injury">personal injury</a>, damage to property or economic loss. The consequences of failure may give rise to action under either criminal or civil law including but not limited to health and safety legislation, the laws of contract and/or <a href="Product_liability" title="Product liability">product liability</a> and the laws of <a href="Tort" title="Tort">tort</a>. The field also deals with retracing processes and procedures leading to accidents in operation of vehicles or machinery. Generally, the purpose of a <a href="Forensics" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensics">forensic</a> <a href="Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> investigation is to locate cause or causes of failure with a view to improve performance or life of a component, or to assist a court in determining the facts of an <a href="Accident" title="Accident">accident</a>. It can also involve investigation of <a href="Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a> claims, especially <a href="Patent" title="Patent">patents</a>. In the US, forensic engineers require a professional engineering license from each state.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>As the field of engineering has evolved over time, so has the field of forensic engineering. Early examples include investigation of <a href="Bridge_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridge failure">bridge failures</a> such as the <a href="Tay_Bridge_disaster" title="Tay Bridge disaster">Tay rail bridge disaster</a> of 1879 and the <a href="Dee_bridge_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Dee bridge disaster">Dee bridge disaster</a> of 1847. Many early rail accidents prompted the invention of <a href="Tensile_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile test">tensile testing</a> of samples and <a href="Fractography" title="Fractography">fractography</a> of failed components.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Investigation">Investigation</h2></div>

<p>Vital to the field of forensic engineering is the process of investigating and collecting data related to the: materials, products, structures or components that failed.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This involves: inspections, collecting evidence, measurements, developing models, obtaining exemplar products, and performing experiments. Often, testing and measurements are conducted in an <a href="Independent_testing_laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent testing laboratory">Independent testing laboratory</a> or other reputable unbiased laboratory.

</p><p>When investigating a case a forensic engineer will follow a series of standard steps of their investigation process. First thing is when the forensic engineer arrives to the scene is to establish safety, they make sure that all the hazards have been dealt with an are safe to handle and be analyzed.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next step would be to do an initial incident appraisal, this is done before any analysis is done and they take a quick observation of what the solution is at hand.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The third step in the investigative process is to plan how to the investigation will go and would resources they will need to obtain to do the analysis accurately.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Next would be establishing the terms of reverence, this is when the forensic engineer will consult with the client on what they want done in the investigation.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next step is to create the investigative team, once there is plan on how to investigate they will make a team of the experts in the given field needed to conduct the analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> lastly would be to start the investigation, and this is where they conduct their analysis.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analysis">Analysis</h2></div>

<p>There are two main types of analysis done in forensic engineering: root cause analysis and failure analysis. Root cause analysis is defined as looking at the system as a whole and what led to the system failing, and is done with large-scale object, for example, a building collapse.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Failure analysis is defined as the analysis of one part in the system that failed to operate. An example of this would be a car failure causing an accident.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These two types of analysis are the initial assessments done when forensic engineering investigators start their investigation.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Failure_mode_and_effects_analysis" title="Failure mode and effects analysis">Failure mode and effects analysis</a> (FMEA) and <a href="Fault_tree_analysis" title="Fault tree analysis">fault tree analysis</a> methods also examine product or process failure in a structured and systematic way, in the general context of <a href="Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">safety engineering</a>. However, all such techniques rely on accurate reporting of <a href="Failure_rate" title="Failure rate">failure rates</a> and precise ID, of the failure modes involved.

</p><p>There is some common ground between forensic science and forensic engineering, such as scene of crime and scene of accident analysis, integrity of the evidence, and court appearances. Both disciplines make extensive use of optical and <a href="Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">scanning electron microscopes</a>, for example. They also share common use of <a href="Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a> (<a href="Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a>, <a href="Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a>, and <a href="Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">nuclear magnetic resonance</a>) to examine critical evidence. <a href="Radiography" title="Radiography">Radiography</a> using <a href="X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a> (such as <a href="X-ray_computed_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="X-ray computed tomography">X-ray computed tomography</a>), or <a href="Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> is also very useful in examining thick products for their internal defects before destructive examination is attempted. Often, however, a simple <a href="Magnifying_glass" title="Magnifying glass">hand lens</a> may reveal the cause of a particular problem.

</p><p><a href="Trace_evidence" title="Trace evidence">Trace evidence</a> is sometimes an important factor in reconstructing the sequence of events in an accident. For example, tire burn marks on a road surface can enable vehicle speeds to be estimated, when the brakes were applied and so on. Ladder feet often leave a trace of movement of the ladder during a slip and may show how the accident occurred. When a product fails for no obvious reason, <a href="Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">SEM</a> and <a href="Energy-dispersive_X-ray_spectroscopy" title="Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy">Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy</a> (EDX) performed in the microscope can reveal the presence of aggressive chemicals that have left traces on the fracture or adjacent surfaces. Thus an <a href="Polyoxymethylene_plastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyoxymethylene plastic">acetal resin</a> water pipe joint suddenly failed and caused substantial damages to a building in which it was situated. Analysis of the joint showed traces of chlorine, indicating a <a href="Stress_corrosion_cracking" title="Stress corrosion cracking">stress corrosion cracking</a> failure mode. The failed fuel pipe junction mentioned above showed traces of <a href="Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> on the fracture surface from the <a href="Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>, which had initiated the crack.

</p><p>Extracting physical evidence from digital photography is a major technique used in forensic accident reconstruction. <a href="Match_moving" title="Match moving">Camera matching</a>, <a href="Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">photogrammetry</a>, and <a href="Image_rectification" title="Image rectification">photo rectification</a> techniques are used to create three-dimensional and top-down views from the two-dimensional photos typically taken at an accident scene. Overlooked or undocumented evidence for accident reconstruction can be retrieved and quantified as long as photographs of such evidence are available. By using photographs of the accident scene including the vehicle, "lost" evidence can be recovered and accurately determined.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Forensic_materials_engineering" title="Forensic materials engineering">Forensic materials engineering</a> involves methods applied to specific materials, such as <a href="Metal" title="Metal">metals</a>, <a href="Glass" title="Glass">glasses</a>, <a href="Ceramic" title="Ceramic">ceramics</a>, <a href="Composite_material" title="Composite material">composites</a> and <a href="Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organizations">Organizations</h2></div>

<p>The National Academy of Forensic Engineers (NAFE) was founded in 1982 by Marvin M. Specter, P.E., L.S.; Paul E. Pritzker, P.E., and William A. Cox Jr., P.E. to identify and bring together professional engineers having qualifications and expertise as practicing forensic engineers to further their continuing education and promote high standards of professional ethics and excellence of practice. It seeks to improve the practice, elevate the standards, and advance the cause of forensic engineering. Full membership in the academy is limited to Registered Professional Engineers who are also members of the <a href="National_Society_of_Professional_Engineers" title="National Society of Professional Engineers">National Society of Professional Engineers</a> (NSPE). They must also be members in an acceptable grade of a recognized major technical engineering society. NAFE also offers Affiliate grades of membership to those who do not yet qualify for Member grade.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Full members are board-certified through the <i>Council of Engineering and Scientific Specialty Boards</i><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and earn the title "Diplomate of Forensic Engineering", or "DFE". This is typically used after their designation as Profesional Engineer.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div>

<p>The broken fuel pipe shown at left caused a serious accident when <a href="Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">diesel fuel</a> poured out from a van onto the road. A following car skidded and the driver was seriously injured when she collided with an oncoming <a href="Lorry" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorry">lorry</a>. <a href="Scanning_electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Scanning electron microscopy">Scanning electron microscopy</a> (SEM) showed that the <a href="Nylon" title="Nylon">nylon</a> connector had fractured by <a href="Stress_corrosion_cracking" title="Stress corrosion cracking">stress corrosion cracking</a> (SCC) due to a small leak of <a href="Battery_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery acid">battery acid</a>. Nylon is susceptible to <a href="Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">hydrolysis</a> when in contact with <a href="Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>, and only a small leak of acid would have sufficed to start a brittle crack in the <a href="Injection_moulded" class="mw-redirect" title="Injection moulded">injection moulded</a> <a href="Nylon_6%2C6" class="mw-redirect" title="Nylon 6,6">nylon 6,6</a> connector by SCC. The crack took about 7 days to grow across the diameter of the tube. The fracture surface showed a mainly brittle surface with striations indicating progressive growth of the crack across the diameter of the pipe. Once the crack had penetrated the inner bore, fuel started leaking onto the road.

</p><p>The nylon 6,6 had been attacked by the following reaction, which was catalyzed by the acid:

</p>

<p><a href="Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">Diesel fuel</a> is especially hazardous on road surfaces because it forms a thin, oily film that cannot be easily seen by drivers. It is much like <a href="Black_ice" title="Black ice">black ice</a> in its slipperiness, so skids are common when diesel leaks occur. The insurers of the van driver admitted liability and the injured driver was compensated.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div>

<p>Most manufacturing models will have a forensic component that monitors early failures to improve quality or efficiencies. Insurance companies use forensic engineers to prove liability or nonliability. Most engineering disasters (<a href="Structural_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural failure">structural failures</a> such as bridge and building collapses) are subject to forensic investigation by engineers experienced in forensic methods of investigation. <a href="Rail_crashes" class="mw-redirect" title="Rail crashes">Rail crashes</a>, <a href="Aviation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Aviation accidents and incidents">aviation accidents</a>, and some <a href="Car_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Car accident">automobile accidents</a> are investigated by forensic engineers in particular where component failure is suspected. Furthermore, appliances, consumer products, medical devices, structures, industrial machinery, and even simple hand tools such as hammers or chisels can warrant investigations upon incidents causing injury or property damages. The failure of <a href="Medical_device" title="Medical device">medical devices</a> is often <a href="Life-critical_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Life-critical system">safety-critical</a> to the user, so reporting failures and analysing them is particularly important. The environment of the body is complex, and <a href="Implant_(medicine)" title="Implant (medicine)">implants</a> must both survive this environment, and not leach potentially toxic impurities. Problems have been reported with <a href="Breast_implant" title="Breast implant">breast implants</a>, <a href="Heart_valve" title="Heart valve">heart valves</a>, and <a href="Catheter" title="Catheter">catheters</a>, for example.

</p><p>Failures that occur early in the life of a new product are vital information for the manufacturer to improve the product. <a href="New_product_development" title="New product development">New product development</a> aims to eliminate defects by testing in the factory before launch, but some may occur during its early life. Testing products to simulate their behavior in the external environment is a difficult skill, and may involve <a href="Accelerated_life_testing" title="Accelerated life testing">accelerated life testing</a> for example. The worst kind of defect to occur after launch is a <a href="Life-critical_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Life-critical system">safety-critical</a> defect, a defect that can endanger life or limb. Their discovery usually leads to a <a href="Product_recall" title="Product recall">product recall</a> or even complete withdrawal of the product from the market. Product defects often follow the <a href="Bathtub_curve" title="Bathtub curve">bathtub curve</a>, with high initial failures, a lower rate during regular life, followed by another rise due to wear-out. National standards, such as those of <a href="ASTM_International" title="ASTM International">ASTM</a> and the <a href="BSI_Group" title="BSI Group">British Standards Institute</a>, and <a href="International_standard" title="International standard">International Standards</a> can help the designer in increasing product integrity.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historic_examples">Historic examples</h2></div>

<p>There are many examples of forensic methods used to investigate accidents and disasters, one of the earliest in the modern period being the fall of the <a href="Dee_bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Dee bridge">Dee bridge</a> at <a href="Chester" title="Chester">Chester</a>, <a href="England" title="England">England</a>. It was built using <a href="Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a> <a href="Girder" title="Girder">girders</a>, each of which was made of three very large castings dovetailed together. Each girder was strengthened by <a href="Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a> bars along the length. It was finished in September 1846, and opened for local traffic after approval by the first Railway Inspector, General Charles Pasley. However, on 24 May 1847, a local train to <a href="Ruabon" title="Ruabon">Ruabon</a> fell through the bridge. The accident resulted in five deaths (three passengers, the train guard, and the locomotive fireman) and nine serious injuries. The bridge had been designed by <a href="Robert_Stephenson" title="Robert Stephenson">Robert Stephenson</a>, and he was accused of negligence by a local <a href="Inquest" title="Inquest">inquest</a>.

</p><p>Although strong in compression, cast iron was known to be brittle in tension or bending. On the day of the accident, the bridge deck was covered with track ballast to prevent the oak beams supporting the track from catching fire, imposing a heavy extra load on the girders supporting the bridge and probably exacerbating the accident. Stephenson took this precaution because of a recent fire on the Great Western Railway at Uxbridge, London, where Isambard Kingdom Brunel's bridge caught fire and collapsed.

</p><p>One of the first major inquiries conducted by the newly formed <a href="Railway_Inspectorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Railway Inspectorate">Railway Inspectorate</a> was conducted by Captain Simmons of the <a href="Royal_Engineers" title="Royal Engineers">Royal Engineers</a>, and his report suggested that repeated flexing of the girder weakened it substantially. He examined the broken parts of the main girder, and confirmed that the girder had broken in two places, the first break occurring at the center. He tested the remaining girders by driving a locomotive across them, and found that they deflected by several inches under the moving load. He concluded that the design was flawed, and that the wrought iron trusses fixed to the girders did not reinforce the girders at all, which was a conclusion also reached by the jury at the inquest. Stephenson's design had depended on the wrought iron trusses to strengthen the final structures, but they were anchored on the cast iron girders themselves, and so deformed with any load on the bridge. Others (especially Stephenson) argued that the train had derailed and hit the girder, the <a href="Impact_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact force">impact force</a> causing it to <a href="Fracture" title="Fracture">fracture</a>. However, <a href="Witness" title="Witness">eyewitnesses</a> maintained that the girder broke first and the fact that the <a href="Locomotive" title="Locomotive">locomotive</a> remained on the track showed otherwise.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publications">Publications</h2></div>

<p>Product failures are not widely published in the <a href="Academic_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic literature">academic literature</a> or trade literature, partly because companies do not want to advertise their problems. However, it then denies others the opportunity to improve product design so as to prevent further accidents.

</p><p>The journal <i>Engineering Failure Analysis</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> published in affiliation with the <a href="European_Structural_Integrity_Society" title="European Structural Integrity Society">European Structural Integrity Society</a>, publishes case studies of a wide range of different products, failing under different circumstances.

</p><p>A publication dealing with failures of buildings, bridges, and other structures, is the <i>Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is published by the <a href="American_Society_of_Civil_Engineers" title="American Society of Civil Engineers">American Society of Civil Engineers</a>, under the umbrella of its Technical Council on Forensic Engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The <i>Journal of the National Academy of Forensic Engineers</i> is a peer-reviewed <a href="Open_access" title="Open access">open access</a> journal that provides a multi-disciplinary examination of the forensic engineering field. Submission is open to NAFE members and the journal's peer review process includes in-person presentation for live feedback prior to a single-blind technical peer review.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="Failure_mode_and_effects_analysis" title="Failure mode and effects analysis">Failure mode and effects analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Traffic_collision" title="Traffic collision">Traffic collision</a> – Incident when a vehicle collides with another object</li>

<li><a href="Catastrophic_failure" title="Catastrophic failure">Catastrophic failure</a> – Sudden and total failure from which recovery is impossible</li>

<li><a href="Evidence_packaging" title="Evidence packaging">Evidence packaging</a> – Specialized packaging for physical evidence</li>

<li><a href="Failure_analysis" title="Failure analysis">Failure analysis</a> – Process of collecting and analyzing data to determine the cause of a failure</li>

<li><a href="Forensic_chemistry" title="Forensic chemistry">Forensic chemistry</a> – Forensic application of the study of chemistry</li>

<li><a href="Forensic_electrical_engineering" title="Forensic electrical engineering">Forensic electrical engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_identification" title="Forensic identification">Forensic identification</a> – Legal identification of specific objects and materials</li>

<li><a href="Forensic_materials_engineering" title="Forensic materials engineering">Forensic materials engineering</a> – Branch of forensic engineering</li>

<li><a href="Forensic_photography" title="Forensic photography">Forensic photography</a> – Art of producing an accurate reproduction of a crime scene</li>

<li><a href="Forensic_polymer_engineering" title="Forensic polymer engineering">Forensic polymer engineering</a> – Study of failure in polymeric products</li>

<li><a href="Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">Forensic science</a> – Application of science to criminal and civil laws</li>

<li><a href="Fractography" title="Fractography">Fractography</a> – Study of the fracture surfaces of materials</li>

<li><a href="Stress%E2%80%93strain_analysis" title="Stress–strain analysis">Stress–strain analysis</a> – Mathematical analysis of stresses in solids</li>

<li><a href="Structural_analysis" title="Structural analysis">Structural analysis</a> – Calculation of structural loads</li>

<li><a href="Structural_integrity_and_failure" title="Structural integrity and failure">Structural integrity and failure</a> – Ability of a structure to support a designed structural load without breaking</li>

<li><a href="Trace_evidence" title="Trace evidence">Trace evidence</a> – Type of evidence of physical contact</li>

<li><a href="Traffic_collision_reconstruction" title="Traffic collision reconstruction">Traffic collision reconstruction</a> – Process for investigating vehicle collisions</li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFNeale1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-location-test">Neale, Brian S. (28–29 September 1998). "Editor's preface". In Neale, B.S. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/doi/abs/10.1680/feapati.27879.fm"><i>Forensic engineering: a professional approach to investigation</i></a>. Proceedings of the international conference organized by the Institution of Civil Engineers. London, UK: Thomas Telford (published 1999). p. i-ii. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1680%2Ffeapati.27879.fm">10.1680/feapati.27879.fm</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7277-2787-9</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:12-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFNoon2000" class="citation book cs1">Noon, Randall K. (2000-10-25). "Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.1201/9781420041415/forensic-engineering-investigation-randall-noon"><i>Forensic Engineering Investigation</i></a>. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>22. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1201%2F9781420041415">10.1201/9781420041415</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-429-24801-6</bdi>. <a href="LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/00-044457">00-044457</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Cyril_Stanley_Smith" title="Cyril Stanley Smith">Smith, Cyril Stanley</a> (1988) [1960]. <i>A History Of Metallography: The Development Of Ideas On The Structure Of Metals Before 1890</i>. MIT Press (original edition published by The University of Chicago Press). pp. 114, <span class="nowrap">121–</span>122. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780262691208</bdi>. <a href="LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/88-12737">88-12737</a>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/47011932">47011932</a>. <a href="EBSCOhost_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EBSCOhost (identifier)">EBSCO<i>host</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AN=49541">49541</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:02-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBennettCataniaEllisonMaher2016" class="citation web cs1">Bennett, James; Catania, Jamie; Ellison, Keith; Maher, Michael; Porter, David; Pupulin, Dennis; Thompson, Christopher; Wilkinson, James; Veerasammy, Renato (January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.peo.on.ca/sites/default/files/2019-10/Guideline-on-Forensic-Engineering-Investigations_0.pdf">"Guidelines of Forensic Engineering Investigations"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Professional Engineers Ontario</i>. Association of Professional Engineers of Ontario. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240422012356/https://www.peo.on.ca/sites/default/files/2019-10/Guideline-on-Forensic-Engineering-Investigations_0.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2024-04-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 20,</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDanaherBallKittel2012" class="citation web cs1">Danaher, David; Ball, Jeff; Kittel, Mark (June 15, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.veritecheng.com/white-paper-forensic-accident-reconstruction/">"Extracting Physical Evidence from Digital Photographs for use in Forensic Accident Reconstruction"</a> [Photogrammetry Reconstruction White Paper]. <i>Veritech Consulting Engineering, LLC</i> (Publication White Paper). Castle Rock, CO. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140325204255/http://www.veritecheng.com/white-paper-forensic-accident-reconstruction">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-03-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-09-09</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100223091909/http://www.nafe.org/">"NAFE - National Academy of Forensic Engineers"</a>. <i>NAFE - National Academy of Forensic Engineers</i>. Archived from the original on 2010-02-23.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200807173526/https://www.cesb.org/accredited-programs">"Accredited Certification Programs"</a>. <i>The Council of Engineering & Scientific Specialty Boards</i>. CESB. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cesb.org/accredited-programs">the original</a> on 2020-08-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/engineering-failure-analysis">"Engineering Failure Analysis"</a>. <i>ScienceDirect</i>. Elsevier B.V. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240616082437/https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/engineering-failure-analysis">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-06-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-24</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ascelibrary.org/page/jpcfev/editorialboard">"Aims & Scope and Editorial Board: Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities"</a>. <i>ASCE Library</i>. American Society of Civil Engineers. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240909200609/https://ascelibrary.org/page/jpcfev/editorialboard">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-09-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-09-09</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101224151843/http://tcfe.asce.org/">"ASCE Technical Council on Forensic Engineering (TCFE)"</a>. <i>American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tcfe.asce.org/">the original</a> on 2010-12-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-04-25</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journal.nafe.org/ojs/index.php/nafe/information/authors">"Information for Authors"</a>. <i>Journal of the National Academy of Forensic Engineers</i>. National Academy of Forensic Engineers. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240901043514/https://journal.nafe.org/ojs/index.php/nafe/information/authors">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-09-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><i>Forensic Materials Engineering: Case Studies</i> by Peter Rhys Lewis, Colin Gagg, Ken Reynolds, CRC Press (2004).</li>

<li><i>Forensic Engineering Investigation</i> by Randall K. Noon, CRC Press (2000).</li>

<li><i>Introduction to Forensic Engineering</i> (The Forensic Library) by Randall K. Noon, CRC Press (1992).</li>

<li>National Academy of Forensic Engineers</li>

<li>Introduction to Forensic Engineering. OpenLearn. <a href="Open_University" title="Open University">Open University</a></li>

<li>Forensic Engineering by Origin and Cause</li>

<li>Guidelines for Investigating Process Safety Incidents, CCPS, AIChE, Wiley (3rd edition)</li></ul>

<dl><dt>Journals</dt></dl>

<ul><li><i>Engineering Failure Analysis</i></li>

<li><i>Journal of the National Academy of Forensic Engineers</i></li>

<li><i>Forensic Engineering</i>. <a href="Institution_of_Civil_Engineers" title="Institution of Civil Engineers">Institution of Civil Engineers</a></li></ul>

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